Social Evolution of the UK over Modern European History

During the late middle ages in Britain many things were taking place. Marriages were being arranged and the church played a dominant role in life. Disease was also quite prevalent within British society. There were affected with the Black plague as many other countries suffered from the disease as well. People were not familiar with the human anatomy and, thus had no knowledge of what was taking place with their own body. Feudalism was also present within Britain during the late middle ages. During the 16th and 17th centuries Britain began to undergo some changes. The population began to grow tremendously towards the middle of the 17th century. Romance was coming into play and became a factor in relationships, however marriages were mostly based on economics. Education in Britain became available, but only for the upper class. The lower classes were not given the same opportunities as the upper class. Additionally, the Catholic church had some competition. During these centuries the Protestant reformation occurred led by Martin Luther. The Catholic religion then reacted with the Catholic Counter reformation and other religious wars. Furthermore, the cities were growing faster than the rural areas. The countryside consisted of peasants, landlords, landless laborers, while the urban life was compiled of merchants, artisans, laborers, clergy, lawyers, and teachers. Within the countryside farming techniques such as enclosure and the putting out system were present. During the 18th century, Protestant women in Britain were still looked at to manage the home, while Catholic women were able to find work within the church. However, Protestantism began to give an education to all boys and girls instead of only limiting schooling to the upper class. The rural areas began to increase, as well as the growth of the cities and the urban life. Slavery was also still present in Britain as it was in the previous centuries as well. In the 19th century, Britain officially ended slavery in 1833. In 1850, most men in Britain worked in factories, while women were still at home. By the late 19th century, women of poor families were able to get out of the house and find work in factories. The middle class women began to organize and fight for their rights. Education in Britain began to expand and emphasize thoroughly on the middle and lower classes. In addition, the standard way of living in Britain began to increase as well as the wages for workers. Society within Britain began to diversify greatly. The lower class made 80% of society within Britain. They were craftsman, domestic servants, day laborers, and foremen. The upper middle class were found to be working in the banking and commerce industries. While the lower middle class were shopkeepers and small traders. Britain underwent many changes from the late middle ages up until this very day, their history is rich and filled with lots of information.

Economic evolution Over the Course of Modern European History

The economy in Britain went through great change over the vast course of European history that we studied this year. The first event that affected British economy was the Black Death. Besides the obvious social affect that the plague had on England and the rest of Europe, the Black death also destroyed European economy. There were less employees and overproduction was vast because there were fewer consumers. Many people stayed at home for fear of contracting the fatal disease that plagued the continent, and economic life suffered because of it. The next stage in European history, the Reformation had a positive effect on the economy. The slight turn away from religion led to a wider acceptance of women in economic positions, and a greater economic development. During the period of religious wars England enjoyed an age of economic prosperity as a result of its dominance on the high seas. The scientific and commercial revolutions brought on greater economic development in not only England, but all of Europe as new techniques and government ideas evolved. The new tools creating during this period sped up production and created more jobs (such as in factories). During the mid 18th century, over 85% of Europeans still farmed for a living. The increase in overseas trading created a greater demand for goods and started the agricultural revolution. This would be considered a time of great prosperity in England, which developed the highly popular open-field system. As a result of the Enlightenment, a free-market economy was installed in England, allowing greater economical freedom. During the times of war (WWI and WWII), economy was quite prosperous in the UK. Factories were focused on war supplies, and more and more jobs opened up. Women once again became an important part of the economy, and times were good. However, when the war was over, economic trouble would occur again. There was the struggle to pay back debts owed to the soldiers combined with the necessity to rebuild the homefront that led to economic troubles. Today, England is an active ally of the United States and does fine economically, however it was a long road from the earliest days of the Tudor family.

Political Evolution of the UK during the Modern European Period

Like most monarchies, the English monarchy gained power with the decline of feudalism in the 14th and 15th centuries. Strong monarchs such as Elizabeth I brought power to the nation through military achievement, such as the Spanish Armada, and its own national religion began by Henry VIII. However, after a brief abuse of power that included the parliamentary ignorance of James I and Charles I, the radical Oliver Cromwell was able to seize power in the English Civil War. After capturing power and running the country under a military dictatorship for nearly 15 years, Charles II was restored to the throne. However, the people still sought reform and after a brief period the Glorious Revolution ousted Charles and instilled William and Mary as the heads of a constitutional monarchy. As the years progressed, kings and queens such as Anne were muddled in wars, both in Europe and in the Americas. After the American Revolution weakened foreign power, Britain had to deal with the conflict of Napoleon and his growing power in the early 1800's. In a dual struggle to keep out the ideals of the French Revolution and to stop Napoleon from spreading his power, Lloyd George helped to return Europe to conservatism and to restore the balance of power in Europe at the Congress of Vienna. Unfortunately for men like George, chartism and other movements would challenge monarchs and leaders to reform the systems which they had worked hard to build. The politics of Great Britain, however, proved deadly in the events of World War I and II. While there were few major blunders in World War I, the monarchy was tested like others and an economic depression that followed made the politics of England and other countries very cautious. Led by the notorious Neville Chamberlain, Britain allowed Germany to run rampant over the continent in the name of appeasement, only to finally step in after it was nearly too late. At the conclusion of World War II, power for the monarchy, which had already been limited, became nearly non-existent. Though little reform occured, it was clear that the Prime Minister was far more powerful. In the early 1990's, strong ministers such as Margaret Thatcher began to bring Britain back from the power loss it had suffered after World War II and put it back on the political map of major powers. Today, Britain is stable politically under the leadership of a strong prime minister and a parliament that finally gets its say, and uses kings and queens such as the current Elizabeth as figureheads.

Revolution, Rebuilding, and New Challenges (Ch. 31)

As the Soviet Union finally began its decline with the election of Mikhail Gorbachev in 1985, the United Kingdom was one of the few nations that did not truly take part in the changing map of Europe. While the Soviet Union collapsed and Eastern Europe experienced the demolition of communism and revolutions in Yugoslavia and all of Europe, the United Kingdom concerned itself with the prevention of future conflict through organized actions. While expanding NATO and the United Nations to ensure collective security, the UK also took part in establishing the European Union and other groups designed to improve Europe's economy. Although the population rate of Europe is declining each year, it has found stability in politics for the most part. Economics continue to be a slight problem in the Eastern European countries, which have failed to recover from Communism. However, countries like the UK are working hard to ensure that stability will again become the norm in Europe.

Cold War Conflicts and Social Transformations in the UK (CH. 30)

With the end of the Second World War came a complete change in the face of Europe, England included.  Great Britain, along with France and The United States, combined to occupy West Germany, opposing the communist USSR occupying East Germany.  Europe was split into the region east of the "Iron Curtain" and the western portion of Europe.  This is also known as a period of great economic crisis, one of the greatest in European history. Britain and other nations combined to form the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, which provided military protection for non-communist countries.  But not only was their drastic change in politics and the economy, but the world changed socially as well.  The youth revolution, particularly prominent in London, was taking over Europe.  When these youths, born after the end of WWII, grew of age they would become the counterculture that rebelled against parents, authority figures, and the status quo.  Bob Dylan sums it up best when he says in song "the times they are a' changing", and indeed they were.  

Britain WWII

Britain came into WWII to aid France, their allies, who had been invaded by Germany and taken under siege. Germany progressed and bombed London. But Britain held strong and after the bombing the persisted to fight against Germany with the aid of America.

Britain during the Age of Anxiety (Ch.28)

The aftermath of World War played a huge role in Europe. Many European countries began to rethink and question values and beliefs that had been established during the Enlightenment. People began to reject these longstanding accepted ideas. New discoveries in physics, philosophy, psychology, and literature added to the crisis by opposing established beliefs. Additionally, the Great Depression had a tremendous affect on Europe as well. The depression began in the United States at first, but then spread to Europe. As a result, there was mass unemployment, which also caused psychological problems as well. Britain was forced to react to the depression taking place within its country. They focused on their national market, which played a crucial role in its recovery. By 1937, production in Britain had increased 20 percent. Britain managed to implement a successful plan that put them on the right path to recovery. While many other European countries were suffering greatly from the depression. This time period was full of many issues that caused a numerous amount problems to arise within Europe. Which is why the time frame is known as the Age of Anxiety.

The Great Break:War and Revolution (Chap. 27)

In the summer of 1914, Britain watched as relationships deteriorated and Eastern Europe tumbled closer to war. With the spark provided through the assassination of archduke Franz Ferdinand, Eastern Europe quickly became engulfed after alliances brought multiple countries into what should have been a small scuffle. As countries all over Europe began to militarize in preparation, it seemed that Britain would be left out of the fray. However, after Germany invaded Belgium in late 1914, Britain felt the need to step in and take control. One primary reason for the escalation of war was the idea by each side that they could win quickly. Although alliances were a main reason for joining, countries like Britain felt they had superior military capability and therefore believed it would be a short war that was an excellent opportunity to gain authority. After entering the war, Britain was effected in all aspects just like all other nations. The social impact may have been the largest of all. With so many men sent out to the front lines as war escalated each day, women were thrust into the positions these men had once held. Social equality also became a reality as men and women could find work, bolstering the economy while improving rights for the lower classes. At the end of the war, Britain was quite skeptical. Surprisingly, they never completely ratified the Treaty of Versailles. Britain's main goal at the Treaty was to punish Germany viciously, which was eventually carried out with French support. The war also left an impact on Britain that would eventually plunge them back into war: after a war fought for such foolish reasons, Britain was left wary of war, eventually leading to World War II.

Britain During the Age of Nationalism (Ch.25)

With the rest of the continent in politic upheaval, Britain seemed to be the only country to maintain a peaceful and successful political evolution. A two-party parliament guided the country smoothly from liberalism to democracy, in contrast to many other European nations such as Germany, France, and Russia. British electoral campaigns became more modern with widespread voting, from the lower to upper class. The Reform Bill of 1884 gave virtually every adult male the right to vote, moving Britain even closer to a full-fledged democracy. Still, the unanswered question of Ireland loomed large in British policies. The Irish famine created unrest in Ireland and fueled revolution, forcing Britain to give certain concessions. Ireland was split between those of the south who supported home rule, and the north which highly opposed it. Britain failed to capture and control that elemental current of national feeling in Ireland, and the struggling nation moved closer to self-government. However, the momentous Irish question would be overthrown by the rising conflict shaking Europe, later named World War I.

Nobles View of the New Era

The new era proved well for us. With a larger gap between us and the peasants life is more favorable. We were able to segregate our agricultural fields from the peasants, and profit well from our own farms. We became wealthier than before, and were able to lead more luxurious lives. Our lifestyle had truly improved. We were able to have larger meals brought to us by servants, indulged in lavish dinner parties, afford high end fashion, and most importantly, our children were able to receive a good education. Life truly was better on the other side of the tracks.

Clergy view of England during New Era

The clergy view England in a dismayed fashion. The rise of liberalism is against the many Christian ways that have ruled this country for so long. The conservatism backlash has not yet arrived in the UK, but is a way in which to return to the old ways of ruling and old power of the church. The church supports longevity and stability, while liberalism is a selfish style that will soon fold and leave the country in ruin. The romantic movement, however, has gained support for the Christian church through religious paintings and the spread of religion and belief in god. The clergy overall is upset with the position of religion in society.

Peasant's View of England During New Era

Throughout this era there have been many changes that have occurred. As a result, times have become more difficult for us, peasants. The gap between the rich and the poor have widened making it extremely difficult for us to survive. Most peasants who are able to find a job have a very small selection to choose from. Most peasants are shopkeepers, small businessmen, and white collar workers. While the upper class was improving their lifestyle by making larger meals, dinner parties, having servants, fashion, and receiving a good education. This widened the gap between the rich and the poor extremely, and as a result, made it extremely difficult for the peasants to survive.

Monarch's view of England during new era

Although I am a constitutional monarch as the head of the United Kingdom, I am greatly worried about the rapid increase of liberalism in my kingdom. Although the people have not shown a desire to go to the great extremes of Karl Marx and his communist co-founders, they have engaged in a form of reforming liberalism that I greatly hope to see an end to. For example, they have begun with the simple repeal of the Corn Laws, although I must admit that they did favor the upper classes. They have proceeded to demand labor rights, and I cannot see a forseeable end to the unrestrained democracy. They call for the equality and suffrage of the lower class, which I simply do not have the time to deal with. Politics should be reserved for the higher classes, though I feel powerless to stop the lower class wretches. Romanticism seems to be the key behind it all, inspiring a sense of daring and risk as well as drama that has simply taken Europe by storm.
Additionally, the situation of the urban dwellers continues to get worse and worse, and soon I feel that they will no longer contain their emotions. The poorest live in deplorable conditions with little to no food, and though I could care less, there are too many of them to be disregarded altogether. The liberalist ideas are especially appealing to these fools, who believe that all sorts of reforms will help improve their lousy lives. I cannot explain the anxiety that this sweeping thought and action is causing in my conservative world.

Britain's view of France during the Congress of Vienna

The most basic purpose of the Congress of Vienna was to undo what Napoleon had done to Europe. Britain was one of the few countries who was able to hold off being taken over by Napoleon because of their strong navy and control of the high seas. This made Britain and France enemies of a sort, and thus Britain would see to it that France was punished. Britain was most likely pleased with the results of the congress, for they were able to obtain some valuable lands, although they gave up little in the conquests of Napoleon. Going into the meeting, Britain wanted France to as little of the land as possible to completely suppress the power Napoleon had developed. France gained only the Land of Two Sicilies, and were given no power anywhere else in Europe. This satisfied Britain who would do whatever necessary to crush the French empire.

Russia's View of Great Britain in the Congress of Vienna

Russia really didn't care to much about Britain or their gains since neither of them had similar interests in territories. They were mainly apathetic towards each other and Russia focused more on eastern Europe while Britain focused more on Western Europe.

Napoleon's affect on Britain

The Napoleonic Wars lasted from 1803 to 1815. During this time Britain remained at war. They were protected by naval supremacy, so they could maintain low intensity on land warfare. Britain, Russia, and Austria formed a new coalition when they teamed together. To conquer Europe, Napoleon would now have to face this new powerful coalition. In 1803, Britain and France resumed war. Britain was soon joined by Russia and Austria. Britain inflicted a naval defeat at the battle of Trafalgar in 1805. As a result, Napoleon halted his plans to invade Britain and instead focused on the Austria and Russia forces and defeated them at Austerlitz.
Later in 1805, after Napoleon escaped Elba, his loss at Waterloo marked the end of reign. The British imprisoned him on the remote island of St. Helena where he died in 1821.

Austrian View of Britain during the Congress of Vienna

I, Prince Klemens Von Metternich, write to express my views on the great British empire. I see the British as a tremendous ally and they have been incredibly helpful with winning us parts of Italy. Also, their common goal of limiting the power of Russia bodes well for us Austrians, being as we worry about their unnoticed power in Eastern Europe. Britain wants independance for much of Poland, and I have no problem accepting this. Castlereagh and I are getting along well, and our give and take relationship seems to be working out for the best in terms of land claims. However, where we differ is on the issue of the German Confederation. Castlereagh insists on a strong confederation with Austro-Prussian leadership, a proposal that I simply cannot accept. I wish for weak Austrian leadership, and if the Brits are not willing to accept this, I fear that our relationship may sour. I hope that they will also support me in my mission to root out revolutionary ideas in Europe and return to the status quo. I hope to see a decline of liberalism, a goal that I simply do not know whether Britain shares.

The British view of Austria during the Congress of Vienna

I write, as the famous Castlereagh, to explain my views on the Austrians at this date, especially the wily Prince Klemens Von Metternich. Although we do have a good relationship, Metternich and I, we differ on some things. In terms of agreements, we both believe that Russia must be kept out of the European picture and that independance is the key for many lands. The Austrians know what they want, namely Italy and certain German provinces, and I respect them for not becoming greedy. However, when it comes to the general grouping of the German Confederation, we differ greatly on opinions. While Metternich feels that Austria should dominate the Confederation, preferably weakly, we believe that it should be a strong Confederation with Austro-Prussian lead. I do not feel that we are being unfair, for we are ceding the lands to other nations. However, the Austrians seem to be particularly stubborn here, even though we are willing to give them their wishes in Italy. They worry about Prussia's influence and a subsequent relationship with Russia. We simply feel that we cannot allow Austria to gain this power, because it would upset the overall balance. Hopefully this issue does not sour our relationship, because the Austrians will surely be a key ally in trying to grant independance to many Eastern European areas.

Page 697 - 704 “French Revolution”

The French Revolution began with the financial problems the government created. The third estate was the only one being taxed as well as being the largest and poorest. Through the formation of the National Assembly after the Tennis Court Oath, the third estate swore not to dissolve until a constitution was written. The constitution, deriving from the American revolution, had the purpose of holding all of the laws of the country. But chaos was storming the streets of France with the poor revolting due to their lack of bread, and after the storming of the Bastille the French country side was being invaded by criminals. With the havoc surrounding france some nobles and delegates at Versailles began urging equal taxation and to end feudal dies. A law was passed and feudal dues were eliminated. Then on August 27, 1789, the National Assembly created the Declaration of the Rights of Man, which said, "Men are born and remain free and equal in rights."

Page 704-712 "World War & Republican France 1791-1799"

Outside of France, many people such as, liberals and radicals, hoped that the revolution would lead to a reordering of society everywhere. However, conservatives believed otherwise. They believed changes would result in chaos and tyranny. Fear spread among numerous European kings and nobility. They thought that the revolution would spread, thus, they created the Declaration of Pillnitz. This threatened the invasion of France by Austria and Prussia. In retaliation to this, France declared war on Austria.
The "Second Revolution" and intense radicalization took place in France. France was proclaimed a republic. The national convention was split between Girondists and the Mountain, led by Robespierre and Danton. Louis XVI was tried and convicted. He was guillotined in early 1793. The war against tyranny continued in France, as they declared war on most of Europe, including Britain.
The Reign of Terror was led by Robespierre. He instituted this program to eliminate opposition to the revolution. As a result, approx. 40,000 people were jailed or executed. However, Robespierre also made positive changes. He fixed prices on key products and instituted rationing to help the poor.
The Thermidorian reaction came as a result to Robespierre's rule. The Reign of Terror eventually led to Robespierre's death. The country was in great fear of him and the only solution was death. The Thermidorian reaction was marked by return to bourgeois liberalism. It also marked the end of the poor losing fervor for revolution. Riots by the poor were also put down.
Thus, the middle class established another constitution to protect power. The Directory was formed. It consisted of a five man executive board. However, a military dictatorship was formed by Napoleon. He did this to prevent return to peace and monarchy.

The Napoleonic Era (Pgs. 712-718)

The age now known as the Napoleonic Era, a time when Napoleon Bonaparte, originally of Corsica, reigned supreme over France and much of Europe, had a great affect on England and the UK. Napoleon took advantage of France's vulnerability during a Revolution, and became the hero that they needed so dearly. When Napoleon became ruler, his military genius became evident as he began his conquest of Europe. One of his greatest opponents was England and their highly superior Navy, which he unsuccessfully attempted to conquer usuing his plan know as the Continental System. Napoleon tried to blockade the British and destroy them economically in order to weaken the country overall and allow Napoleon and his army to take over England. Instead, his plan backfired, and his own country deteriorated because of their strong economic ties with England. Thus, England's superiority on the high seas allowed them to virtually steer clear of Napoleon's terror.

Peace Settlement, 755-761

Britain, along with conservatives of Russia, Prussia, and Austria, defeated France and put them in a position to negotiate. Great Britain was among these 5 countries that met for the Congress of Vienna following Napoleon's rule. Britain was instrumental in leading an agreement that neither tore apart France or allowed them to regain epic power. The concept of the balance of power was able to form Europe as a balanced continent with no overwhelming power. Although the section talks much about Metternich and his ideas, Britain was actually quite quiet after the peace settlement.

691-697, Liberty and Equality

This area dealt with the principles and actions behind the American Revolution. Obviously the American revolution had a lot to do with Britain. What is ironic is that many of the Englightenment ideas that began in England would later be used in America against them. The Americans, after gaining independence based on Englightenment ideas that stated that the people could rebel against a tyrannical king, then went on to establish a constitution based on the new principles of government. Although the situation was clearly a hit to Britain, it also affected them positively, because they were losing money in the Americas each year.

Population Growth and Cottage Industry (637-645)

Early on, the section refers primarily to Europe in general. As the 18th century began, population began to grow as a result of better conditions. Filth was generall removed and diets improved with new agricultural developments. Although population had increased only gradually between teh 10th and 17th centuries for the most part, it began to explode in the 1700's. England, like other countries, began to see its population double every 40 years, as opposed to the 70 to 100 years that had preceded it.

With this larger increase in population, England took the lead in beginning small-scale, home-based industry. As more people crowded the fields, each person had less land provided for them, leading to the necessity of another form of income. The result was the putting-out system, which began in England. Merchants would bring raw materials to rural industrial workers, who would in turn spin or weave the thread, selling it back to the merchant. England's system was crucial in forming the basis for the industrial revolution on a large-scale later on.

The Impact of Diet on Health (673-684)

Like most of Europe, England ran on a diet primarily lacking Vitamins A and C as the 18th century began. Both the rich and the poor saw little reason for growing vegetables when grain and meat seemed far more effective options. However, with the introduction of the potato, first in the United Kingdom in Ireland, Europe had a new source of nutrition. The potato nourished soil by growing underground, and provided nutrients while supplying more calories per amount of space than grain. The poor were able to keep proper nutrition with the cheap vegetable, primarily the paupers of Ireland.
With advancements in diet came necessary changes in the medical world. Hospitals finally became more helpful in curing the sick rather than giving an almost certain death sentence. Mental hospitals, which were originally inhumane, keeping patients in chains, took new strides when the William Tuke of England took the chains off of his patients and treated them as real people. By the end of the 18th century, medicine had become more practical and less based on faith and miracle.
During this period, there was also a strong emphasis on Protestant Revival, led in England by John Wesley, who had a vivid style that brought people back to religion. He was very influential, speaking in fields and public places to reach all audiences. Anglicanism appeared to gain new strength with his works.

The Changing LIfe of the People (pgs. 662-673)

During the late 1700's and into the early 1800's, the family life within all European countries changed drastically. Families lived and raised their children under the same roof as their brothers and sisters. The extended families provided security for the older members of the family. Men and women married late in their lives; years after reaching adulthood and beginning to work. Men stayed at home until they were economically able to start their own household, however most boys worked very hard for meager wages. The plowed and wove, while the girls spun and tended to the cows. When a boy worked away from the home, he drifted from job to job within a town. Many girls were sent off as servants to other families, while the wages they earned were given directly to their family. This girls were constantly under the eye of mistresses who were often abusive. Women became a victim of sexual harassment, many times resulting in an undesired pregnancy. These women were looked down upon by society, as were their illegitimate, bastard children. Premarital sex was strongly apposed because of the threat it posed on a close-knit community, and was often practiced only by those contemplating marriage. Childhood was a dangerous time for many received little schooling and experienced less than satisfactory medical care. Many infants were killed because of the simple fact that there were too many children to feed. Children of all classes were considered unimportant at this time mainly because of the growing death rate of infants.
The upper class led the way in the development of literature and eventually minimal education. Illiteracy was still prominent within the common people. The minimal literacy that now existed inspired the growth of literature, with the Bible still being the most popular. Books became a small escape from the harshness of reality. Europeans began living longer and developing better nutrition. Their diet consisted mainly of bread, and was washed down with wine, beer, water and minimal skim milk. Life improved over this time period; however the treatment of women and children drastically worsened.

Building the Atlantic Economy (pgs. 645-655)

Great Britain was formed in 1707, which was the union of England and Scotland in a single kingdom. Great Britain had taken the lead in expansion in world trade. Therefore, the British played a key part in building a unified Atlantic economy, which provided extraordinary opportunities for them and their colonies.
Mercantilism is defined as, a system of of economic regulations aimed at increasing the power of the state, particularly by creating a favorable balance of trade. The English wanted to expand their military power and private wealth, and did so by creating the mercantile system of the Navigation Acts. These acts required that goods exported to England must be on British ships. As a result, the Navigation Acts gave England a trade monopoly with its colonies. France now become jealous of their rivals, Britain, and the two engaged in many wars as a result. France ended up losing the War of Spanish Succession and was forced to give Britain their land in Canada. Additionally, France lost the Seven Years' War and lost all their North American possessions.
The British mercantilist system actually benefited the American colonies. The colonies exported food to the West Indies to feed the slaves, and tobacco and sugar to Britain. The American shipping industry was successful and thus was expanding as a result. Britain also benefited from its mercantile system. The astonishing expansion and affluent agricultural populations of the colonies provided a vast market for English manufactured goods. However, England was losing interest from their European market. This was due to the enormous amount of trading Britain was doing with its colonies.